Interracial Intimacy The Regulation Of Race Romance,...

Rosa Salcido Professor Coffman Sociology 320 September 5, 2015 Title Summary: In the article â€Å"Interracial Intimacy: The Regulation of Race Romance, Antimiscegenation Laws and the Enforcement of Racial Boundaries,† Rachael E. Moran writes about the problems blacks and Asians experienced in regards to sex, marriage, and family. Laws were created addressing interracial sex and marriage with the goal of keeping whites superior to all other races. Blacks and Asians encountered many restrictions regarding whom they could marry and have sexual relations with. Meanwhile white males were allowed to associate with black females, black males were punished for having any relationship with white females. Restrictions on sex and marriage were also evident for Asians. From all the Asians, Chinese were the ones who suffered the most as a result of these laws. Since many Chinese men were not able to bring in their wives or marry women from different races, they had no other choice than to live lonely lives. The results that these laws generated left both blacks and Asians to have undesirable personal lives. In the article â€Å"Fictive Kin, Paper Sons, and Compadrazgo: Women of Color and the Struggle for Family Survival,† Bonnie Thornton Till writes about how family roles were different for whites than for families of color. Meanwhile white females’ roles only pertained to family, females of color had much more obligations than just family responsibilities. For African American women,

English Annotation Shushers Essay examples - 795 Words

The Narrative â€Å"Confessions of a Shusher† by Phillip Lopate creates a vivid image of the atmosphere of a movie theater that contains an annoying or irritating person or couple. The purpose of this writing piece is to express the frustration of the people surrounding those who do not partake in correct movie etiquette and also how society has possibly lost its sense of respect for other persons. He is trying to convey the struggle between those who consider themselves to be â€Å"shushers† and those who do not like to be solitude in public. The author tries to convey this message mainly through writing this piece in first person while using the literary style of stream of consciousness. Periodically throughout the piece, the author shows his†¦show more content†¦These factors are important to the purpose to set the tone of the atmosphere and to re-create his experiences for the best understanding of the piece. This essay also conveys the message in the piece by using an anecdote, motif, and by using syntax. This piece is a brief narrative in which the author is trying to convey the struggle between the â€Å"shushers† in society and those who do not want to remain solitude, expressing how society has lost its respect for other persons. The piece is kept short and sweet to maintain a clear focus throughout. In this anecdote, motif is often used through the repetition of shushing and the different types of it to convey a message to the offender to stop disrupting the show. He describes himself as giving the offenders â€Å"a good hearty ‘Shhh!’ multiple times throughout the piece to different offenders, each with a different situation. Mostly, the â€Å"Shhh!† comes into play with the â€Å"conversationalists†, but there are other situations in which an extra sentence is used as their rudeness becomes defiant policy just to prove some sort of point to him. This motif is used to show constant efforts to stop offenders and striking â€Å"a blow for moviegoers everywhere† even though his efforts, based on the offender, are futile because of their lack of respect for him and those around him. The author also uses the writing tactics

Microbiology Research Paper Free Essays

string(50) " along with several other species of trypanosoma\." African Trypanosomiasis, also known as â€Å"sleeping sickness†, is a parasitic disease of people and animals caused by microscopic parasites of the species Trypanosoma brucei. It is transmitted by the tsetse fly, which is found only in rural Africa. Although the infection is not found in the United States, historically, it has been a serious public health problem in some regions of sub-Saharan Africa covering about 37 countries and 60 million people (African Trypanosomiasis [also known as Sleeping Sickness] 2010). We will write a custom essay sample on Microbiology Research Paper or any similar topic only for you Order Now The term â€Å"sleeping sickness† was given primarily because when infected, invasion of the cerebrospinal fluid and brain after infection of the blood is often delayed, resulting in symptoms of extreme fatigue that can last for several years before the severe phase of the disease sets in; toxemia, coma and death (Trypanosomiasis, African 2009). With the huge number of people it affects, it is weird that I only discovered it now when faced with a microorganism research paper. The glaring explanation behind this, is that there are many much larger, deadlier diseases in Africa, that ultimately make diseases like sleeping sickness get overlooked. This may be true, but that is no reason not to pay attention to a disease like this because it has and does affect and kill thousands of people. When researching this topic many questions arose and they were all addressed with further research. Things addressed in this paper are: how many people the disease effects annually, the cure for humans infected with the organism, where in the world people are affected, whether the number of infections is increasing or decreasing, the side effects when a human is infected, the impact on the economy if there was to be an outbreak, the kinds of treatment given to those who are infected, the future plans for the infection, the comparison of infections in third world countries to first world, and the long lasting effects the disease can leave after treatment. Most speculation and hype related to diseases in Africa focus on malaria and AIDS, but while researching Sleeping Sickness it is clear that there are many more large scale, but less known, diseases affecting the population of Africa. I was really hoping to learn more about the issues that come up when trying to treat a large number of people in a country like Africa where disease and ways to treat disease are big problems. I was also interested in the history of the disease, unfortunately because of it being such a confined disease, especiialy in the beginning, it was hard to find information on the early stages of the disease. Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) has been present in Africa since the fourteenth century, it started isolated in pockets due to lack of travel of the indigenous people. The earliest recorded account of sleeping sickness comes from upper Niger and the next report came from Guinea in 1734 (Trypanosoma Brucei – Sleeping Sickness). J. E. Dutton was the first to correctly identify the parasite as a trypanosome and subsequently named it Trypanosoma gambiense in 1902. D. Bruce identified the cause and vector of this disease in 1903, and also the differentiation between the subspecies of the protozoa made in 1910 (Sanger Institute 2011). The first effective treatment, atoxyl, an arsenic-based drug developed by Paul Ehrlich and Kiyoshi Shiga, was introduced in 1910, but blindness was a serious side effect. So next, Suramin was introduced in 1920 to treat the first stage of the disease. By 1922, Suramin was generally combined with Tryparsamide in the treatment of the second stage of the gambiense form. It was used during the grand epidemic in West and Central Africa, helping millions of people, and stayed the mainstay of therapy until 1969 (Medical Ecology). Pentamidine, a highly effective drug for the first stage of the disease, has been used since 1939. During the fifties, it was widely used as a prophylactic agent in Western Africa, leading to a sharp decline in infection rates. At the time, it was thought that eradication of the disease was at hand (Kelly, J. M 2012). This disease has been around for thousands of years, and has been mostly confined to Africa. Of the 36 countries considered endemic for HAT, the seven most affected countries represent 97% of all reported cases. The Democratic Republic of the Congo alone accounts for 2/3 of reported cases. HAT primarily occurs in the poorest, most rural areas in Africa, where difficulty of diagnosis, political instability, and lack of health surveillance make estimates of disease difficult to conduct. It is also a highly focal disease often characterized by distinct outbreaks in a specific area or village (Agriculture and Consumer Protection). Sleeping sickness endemic areas receive their names from geographical features such as rivers, villages or towns, and administrative divisions, and the size of these areas can range from a single populated place to an entire region. Within a given endemic area, the intensity of the disease can vary from one village to the next. Also, the geographical extent of foci may change significantly over time, as a result of both human mobility and of environmental dynamics and modifications influencing tsetse fly presence, density, and dispersal. Furthermore, it was shown that the Rhodesian form of the disease might be introduced into previously unaffected areas by cattle movement. The disease is found all over Africa, and the organism is transferred when bitten by the fly (Odero, R. O 2012). Trypanosoma brucei is the protozoan that causes HAT. There are 3 sub-species of T. brucei: T. b. brucei, T. b. gambiense, and T. b. rhodesiense. T. brucei gambiense causes slow onset chronic trypanosomiasis in humans this is most common in western and central Africa, where humans are thought to be the primary reservoir. T. brucei rhodesiense causes fast onset acute trypanosomiasis in humans, it is most common in eastern and southern Africa, where game animals and livestock are thought to be the main reservoir. Lastly, T. brucei causes animal African trypanosomiasis, along with several other species of trypanosoma. You read "Microbiology Research Paper" in category "Free Research Paper Samples" These are all obligate parasites, parasitic organisms that cannot complete their life cycle without exploiting suitable hosts, which means they live within an insect vector and a mammal host (World Health Organization 2012). The trypanosome goes through complex changes throughout its life due to the large differences between its two hosts. The cell is a fairly typical eukaryotic cell. It features flagella, the cytoskeleton that is made up mostly of microtubules, and the only unusual feature it has is a single, large mitochondria (Van Den Abbeele, Caljon, De Ridder, De Baetselier, Coosemans 2010). African trypanosomes are extracellular organisms, both in the mammalian and insect host. The morphologically is indistinguishable, measuring 25-40  µ m in length. Infection in the human host begins when the infective stage, known as the metacyclic stage, is injected intradermally by the tsetse fly. The organisms rapidly transform into blood-stage trypomastigotes, and divide by binary fission in the interstitial spaces at the site of the bite wound. The buildup of metabolic wastes and cell debris leads to the formation of a chancre. One of its unusual features is that the entire DNA of the mitochondrion, is localized in the kinetoplast, adjacent to the flagellar pocket. Kinetoplast DNA exists in two forms: mini-circles and maxi-circles. Mini-circle DNA encodes guide RNAs that direct extensive editing of RNA transcripts post-transcriptionally. Maxi-circle DNA contains sequences that, when edited, direct translation of typically mitochondrially-encoded proteins. In the vertebrate host, trypanosomes depend entirely upon glucose for energy and are highly aerobic, despite the fact that the kinetoplast-mitochondrion completely lacks cytochromes. Instead, mitochondrial oxygen consumption is based on an alternative oxidase that does not produce ATP. When in the insect vector, the parasite develops a conventional cytochrome chain and TCA cycle. The surface of the trypanosome has numerous membrane-associated transport proteins for obtaining nucleic acid bases, glucose, and other small molecular weight nutrients. None of these proteins react well with antibodies, because although they lie in exposed regions of membrane, they are shielded by allosteric interference provided by the variant surface glycoprotein coat proteins. The number of parasites in the blood is generally so low that diagnosis by microscopic examination is often negative. At some point, trypanosomes enter the central nervous system, with serious pathological consequences for humans. Some parasites transform into the non-dividing short, stumpy form, which has biochemistry similar to those of the long, slender form and the form found in the insect vector (Jackson, Sanders, Berry, McQuillan, Aslett, et al 2010). African Sleeping Sickness is mostly transmitted through the bite of a tsetse fly, but there are also other ways people can be infected. It can be transferred from a mother to child through crossing the placenta and infecting the fetus. Mechanical transmission can happen through other blood-sucking insects, this happens on a much smaller scale than the tsetse fly. Although this number is very small, accidental infections have happened in labs where people are pricked with contaminated needles (Trypanosoma Brucei – Sleeping Sickness). In the first stage, the trypanosomes multiply in subcutaneous tissues, blood and lymph. This is known as a haemolymphatic phase, which entails bouts of fever, headaches, joint pains and itching. In the second stage the parasites cross the blood-brain barrier to infect the central nervous system. This is known as the neurological phase (Kelly 2012). In general this is when more obvious signs and symptoms of the disease appear: changes of behaviour, confusion, sensory disturbances and poor coordination. The symptoms and signs of sleeping sickness are usually quite different, but can be easily confused because of the variability of symptoms and length of time until onset depends heavily on host characteristics. The chancre, a leathery swelling at the site of the bite, is usually the first symptom of the disease, primarily for T. b. rhodensiense. Within weeks, those with opportunistic levels of infection with T. b. rhodensiense start to experience irregular intermittent fevers associated with the waves of parasitaemia that are characteristic of T. b. rhodensiense infections. For T. b. gambiense, lymphoadenopathy occurs more frequently. Oedema of the face is another frequent sign of infection, and anemia may be present, particularly in T. b. rhodensiense (News Medical 2007) Disturbance of the sleep cycle, which gives the disease its name, is an important feature of the second stage of the disease. Since the parasite constantly changes its surface, it can avoid the immune defense of humans and invade the central nervous system, which leads to personality disturbances, sleep disruptions, and ultimately death (Medical Ecology). For patients affected by a severe T brucei infection in the central nervous system, there are no medicines that can treat both subspecies without incurring extremely serious side effects. Although symptoms and signs associated with nervous system involvement are varied for African sleeping sickness, advanced disease epileptic seizures, maniacal behavior, somnolence, and coma are some typical late stage symptoms (African Trypanosomiasis [also known as Sleeping Sickness] 2010). Unfortunately, survival rates are drastically reduced once the trypanosomes infect the central nervous system. The disease management is made up of three steps: the first is the screening for potential infection by serological tests and checking for clinical symptoms. The second step is to diagnose whether the parasite is present in the body or not, and the final step is to determine the progression of the disease, usually by examining cerebro-spinal fluid. Today, there are only a handful of active drugs available for treatment of human African Trypanosomiasis, and no significant development has been made over the last 2 decades. The current line of treatment is problematic for many reasons: firstly, the drugs are harmfully toxic requiring extensive hospitalization. Secondly, regular follow-ups to check for relapse is essential but difficult in many of the areas where sleeping sickness is endemic (News Medical 2007). Many individuals die before they can ever be treated for the disease because the first stage is usually asymptomatic, and in Africa, an extensive testing of a large number of people who may or may not be infected, is to costly of an investment. The type of treatment depends on the progression of the disease. As it is in most diseases the earlier it is identified, the easier it is to treat and cure. The drugs used in the first stage of the disease are of lower toxicity and easier to administer. Treatment success in the second stage depends on a drug that can cross the blood-brain barrier to reach the parasite. Such drugs are toxic and complicated to administer (African Trypanosomiasis [also known as Sleeping Sickness] 2010). Over the past years, public awareness of the dangers associated with insecticides is increasingly changing the way we treat our environment. Efforts to introduce more environmentally friendly methods of insect control provide the world with challenges to understand more about the insects that transmit HAP. We live in a modern world where various means of control are available to stop the spreading of multiple diseases, however, sleeping sickness is a disease of the developing world. In Africa, despite the multitude of control strategies, issues have been widely neglected and abandoned. One of the main components needed to bring effective change, is to consider a control strategy that will last and can be carried through by local communities (Jackson, Sanders, Berry, McQuillan, Aslett, et al 2010). Apart from efforts to reduce the spread of disease through environmental controls, there is also need to improve current tracking and diagnostic procedures. Chances of death can be drastically reduced when cases can be diagnosed early enough to prevent onset of late-stage sleeping sickness. Training and resources are desperately needed in affected areas for safe and proper diagnostics. With this disease there is an issue with treatment options, and the availability of drugs in Africa. Drug and vaccine development for diseases in developing countries have always been lagging, and trypanocidal drugs are no exception. An estimated 300,000 to 500,000 people are currently infected and suffering from HAT with no hope for treatment. In 2000, the USFDA approved the use of eflornithine. Hopefully some of the profits from the sale of this drug are used to help the situation in the poorest parts of Africa infected with this disease (Jackson, Sanders, Berry, McQuillan, Aslett, et al 2010). The biggest issue with this disease is that it is confined to people in Africa. Because of this most of the world is not aware of the seriousness of it, and most people do not know how they can help. Also, with all the diseases in Africa, many smaller scale sicknesses can be overlooked. Third world countries often have trouble being able to control all the different infections that affect so many people in them. Researching this opened my eyes to the multiplicity and severity of the diseases that affect so many people. It was shocking to learn that this disease has been around for a few thousand years and people are still dying of it daily. And furthermore, that this was the first time I had ever even heard of the disease. It was really interesting to learn about the tsetse fly also, the only other sickness I had heard of before that was transferred by a blood sucking insect, was malaria. The hardest thing to understand was how although there is a cure for this disease, people are still dying of it every day. I was not aware of the complete lack of technology and awareness of the illness in the places affected. If I were to research further on HAT, I would like to research about foundations that donate and help the people and countries affected by this disease. I am very interested in charities and companies that help the less fortunate. Overall, the research I did on this subject has been very informative and thought provoking, it has made me a more knowledgeable person on not only this specific disease, but also many diseases killing people in Africa and other third world countries. I learned a lot about the aspects of microbiology, I got to see it applied to the real world and the affects it can have on people. This has better informed me about the course I am taking and the application of it to something other than a lab station. I learned so much more than I needed to know, but it has made me a better person in the long run, I am a better, smarter person after writing this paper. How to cite Microbiology Research Paper, Essays Microbiology Research Paper Free Essays string(98) " to nonciliated epithelial cells through pili and the production of lipopolysaccharide endotoxin\." Melissa Babajko Microbiology 214BA Dr. May June 6, 2012 Staphylococcus aureus- Is a facultative anaerobic, Gram-positive, salt positive, cocci shaped bacterium. Staphylococcus aureus is found as normal part of the skin floral in the nasal passages and on the skin. We will write a custom essay sample on Microbiology Research Paper or any similar topic only for you Order Now An estimated twenty percent of people naturally have harmless Staphylococcus aureus on their skin and are long-term carries for Staphylococcus aureus. Staphylococcus aureus is the most common strand of Staphylococcus in humans to date, spread through skin to skin contact or even skin to object contact that an a person infected with Staphylococcus aureus has touched. Staphylococcus aureus is coagulase positive, which induces clumping of the cells and of the blood. Staphylococcus aureus has many immune-evasive strategies that make it the most common strand, such as; it produces leukocidin a toxin that kills white blood cells. It also resists opsonization, survives in phagolysosomes, and is lysozyme resistant. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus, abbreviated MRSA, is one of a number of greatly feared strains of S. aureus, which have become resistant to most antibiotics. MRSA strains are most often found associated with institutions such as hospitals, but are becoming increasingly prevalent in community-acquired infections. Research Study: IBM, the computer company, working on nanoparticles that polymerize into structures that are able to attack MRSA bacteria without harming the healthy tissue around it. Once these polymers come into contact with water in or on the body, they self assemble into a new polymer structure that is designed to target bacteria membranes based on electrostatic interaction and break through their cell membranes and walls. The physical nature of this action prevents bacteria from developing resistance to these nanoparticles or other antibiotics. The electric charge naturally found in cells is important because the new polymer structures are attracted only to the infected areas while preserving the healthy red blood cells the body needs to transport oxygen throughout the body and combat bacteria. Unlike most antimicrobial materials, these are biodegradable, which enhances their potential application because they are naturally eliminated from the body (rather than remaining behind and accumulating in organs). They are calling this â€Å"nanomedicine† and if the trial tests work this could destroy this superbug and eliminate MRSA from hotspots like hospitals. (http://www. forbes. com/sites/amywestervelt/2012/05/16/how-ibm-plans-to-solve-the-mrsa-problem/) Streptococcus pyogenes- Is a gram- positive, spherical, group a, beta-hemolytic bacterium. Streptococcus pyogenes displays Streptococcus antigen A in its cell wall surface. Streptococcus pyogenes has M-protein on its surface, which are fibrils that are antiphagocytic and are involved in the adherence to the skin and mucos membranes. Streptococcus pyogenes is a catalase negative bacterium that has a capsule that prevents the bacterium from phagocytosis and neutrophils. Another immune-evasive property of Streptococcus pyogenes is the M-proteins on its surface inhibit opsonization. Streptococcus pyogenes is the cause of many human diseases ranging in severity. Disease in a result to infection includes, pharyngitis (sore throat), impetigo and invasive infections such as, cellulitis and erysipelas. Research Study: Portuguese scientists are looking at new ways to combat the spread of Streptococcus pyogenes by looking into natural antimicrobials. This work aimed to screen the antimicrobial activity of aqueous methanolic extracts of 13 mushroom species. Scientist used a microdilution method to determine the Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and the Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC). MIC results showed that Russula delica and Fistulina hepatica extracts inhibited the growth of Streptococcus pyogenes. A MBC of 10 mg/ml of Ramaria botrytis extract shoed to have bactericide effects on Streptococcus pyogenes, leading scientist to conclude that mushroom extracts could be a hopeful species as an antimicrobial agent to Streptococcus pyogenes that may be resistant to traditional treatments. (http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pubmed/22621239) PMID: 22621239 [PubMed – as supplied by publisher] May 2012 Streptococcus pneumoniae- Is a Gram-positive bacterium in the shape of a slightly pointed cocci. They are usually found in pairs as diplococci. Streptococcus pneumoniae are alpha hemolytic bacterium. Streptococcus pneumoniae have a polysaccharide capsule that acts as a virulence factor for the organism; along with surface proteins that prevent the activation of complement pathways, and pili that enable S. pneumoniae to attach to epithelial cells in the upper respiratory tract. Streptococcus pneumoniae lacks catalase and ferments glucose to lactic acid, like most other streptococci. However, unlike most other streptococci, it does not display an M protein and it hydrolyzes insulin, which help distinguish it from other streptococci. Streptococcus pneumoniae is the most common cause of meningitis in adults and young adults throughout the world and is best known for causing pneumonia all other the world. Research Study: Due to a continuing increase in S. pneumoniae’s antibiotic resistance, the search for a better vaccine is ongoing. Research on the Lactococcus lactis bacteria for use as a vaccine is promising; its production of the pneumococcal surface protein PspA makes it a good candidate for a mucosal vaccine, which could be administered through the nose instead of an injection (a promising aspect). Studies show that the lactococcal vaccine offers better protection against respiratory infection by S. pneumoniae than injections of similar amounts of recombinant PspA administered by injection. There is considerable potential to develop a vaccine with L. lactis, for use against S. streptococcus and more. (http://www. journals. uchicago. edu/JID/journal/issues/v195n2/36706/brief/36706. abstract. html? erFrom=-2043069302250900887Guest) Neisseria gonorrhoeae- Is a gram-negative cocci that are shaped like coffee beans and grow as diplococcic. Neisseria gonorrhoeae grow on chocolate agar with carbon dioxide and need nutrients to grow in a laboratory setting. Neisseria gonorrhoeae are motile bacterium, which move around by twitching and have type IV pilli to adhere to surfaces. Neisseria gonorrhoeae is able to prevent an immune response by using its surface opa proteins, which bind to receptors on immune cells. This results in the host being unable to develop an immunological memory against Neisseria gonorrhoeae and allow for the possibility of reinfection. Neisseria gonorrhoeae infections are acquired by sexual contact and usually affect the mucous membranes of the urethra in males and the endocervix and urethra in females. The pathogenic mechanism involves the attachment of the bacterium to nonciliated epithelial cells through pili and the production of lipopolysaccharide endotoxin. You read "Microbiology Research Paper" in category "Essay examples" Neisseria gonorrhoeae is only found after sexual contact with an infected person (or in the case of infections in the newborn, direct contact). Research Study- A single dose of cefodizime (CDZM), ceftriaxone(CTRX), or spectinomycin (SPCM) is what is recommended for the treatment of gonococcal urethritis or uterine cervicitis. It was previously found that a single dose of CDZM completely eradicated multidrug-resistant N. gonorrhoeae in patients with urethritis and uterine cervicitis, and so a single 1. 0-g dose of CDZM for the treatment of N. gonorrhoeae pharyngeal infection, including infections with CZRNG was tried. The eradication rate of N. gonorrhoeae from the pharynx was 63. % with a single 1. 0-g dose of CDZM, while the rate for CZRNG with the same dose of CDZM was 38. 5%. N. gonorrhoeae was completely eradicated from the pharynx when patients received one or two additional doses of CDZM. It was found that N. gonorrhoeae was completely eradicated from the pharynx when patients received one or two additional doses of CDZM. Therefore, it can be concluded that two to three doses of CDZM are necessary for the treatment of CZRNG pharyngeal infection. (http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pmc/articles/PMC1636252/) Escherichia coli- Is an aerobic, gram-negative, rod shaped bacteria that can be commonly found in animal feces and in the lower intestines of mammals. Escherichia coli possesses adhesive fimbriae and a cell wall that consists of an outer membrane containing lipopolysaccharides, a periplasmic space with a peptidoglycan layer, and an inner, cytoplasmic membrane. The lipopolysaccharide layer of Escherichia coli contains an endotoxin called lipid A and also have a capsule that help fight against phagocytosis and add to its virulence. Some strains are piliated and capable of accepting and transferring plasmid to and from other bacteria. Escherichia coli prefer to live at a higher temperature rather than the cooler temperatures. The harmless strains of Escherichia coli are part of the normal flora in the gut and benefit the host organism by producing vitamin K and preventing the development of pathogenic bacteria within the intestine. Although Escherichia coli is harmless in the gut of an organism when it enters the blood stream and travels through the body it then becomes the leading cause for food poisoning among humans and when it enters the urethra it can cause urinary tract infections in both males and females. Research Study- A study is focusing on exploring the antigens on the outer membrane of the uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC) which can cause uncomplicated urinary tract infection (UTI), and furthermore to design a UTI vaccine to promote protective immunity against UPEC infection. In this sutdy, they apply an immunoproteomics approach to vaccine development that has been used successfully to identify vaccine targets in other pathogenic bacteria. The outer membrane proteins of UPEC from infected mice are separated by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and are identified by mass spectrometry. A total of 23 antigens have known roles in UPEC pathogenesis, such as ChuA, IroN, IreA, Iha, IutA, and FliC. After identifying the antigens on outer membrane of UPEC, they demonstrate an antibody targeting directly on these antigens during UTI. This study shows that these conserved outer membrane antigens can be used as rational candidates for a UTI vaccine. (http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/sites/entrez? Db=pubmed;Cmd=ShowDetailView;TermToSearch=17525800;ordinalpos=7;itool=EntrezSystem2. PEntrez. Pubmed. Pubmed_ResultsPanel. Pubmed_RVDocSum) Haemophilus influenzae- Is a gram-negative bacterium, which infects the blood stream of the organism, which is shaped like rods and is generally anaerobic in nature but can live as facultative anaerobic. Haemophilus influenzae was discovered around the flu pandemic and was first thought to be the cause of influenza but was disproven shown to be the cause of many other clinical diseases. Haemophilus influenzae has new strands of bacterium that can affect organism there is an unencapsulated strain and an encapsulated strain, which is the most common strain to infect humans. Haemophilus influenzae lack motility due to their lack of flagella and pilli, the capsulated strains have a polysaccharide capsule which has the endotoxin Lipid A that contributes to Haemophilus influenzae ability to survive in the blood stream. H. influenzae is an opportunistic pathogen that normally lives with in the host without causing any problems but will act on an opportunity such as a compromised immune system to infect the host. The most noted strain; H. influenzae type b causes meningitis, which is an inflection in the membrane around the brain and epiglottitis, which is infection around the throat and trachea. In general H. Influenzae bacteria lives in the upper respiratory tract, which can be transmitted by close contact with patients. This bacterial infection can also be air born transmitted through sneezing. Research Study- Arnold Smith, M. D. from Seattle Biomedical Research institute, has preformed a research study on how h. influenzae operates. In this research, Dr. Smith’s purpose is to understand how this bacterium causes disease, which can help improved current treatments and preventions. In the lab molecular mechanisms of h. nfluenzae was understood. It was also noted that specific strains of this bacteria have ability to cross the respiratory tract of young children. It was also found that once this infection enters the blood stream it might cause sepsis and meningitis. This research is currently in progress at the Seattle Biomedical Research Institute. (http://www. sbri. org/research/a_smith. asp) Clostridium tetani- is a bacillus, or rod-shaped, bacterium. It is Gram po sitive and commonly appears to be shaped like a drumstick or tennis racket when stained. This appearance is due to the sporulation that occurs inside the cell. Clostridium tetani is an obligate anaerobe and relies on fermentation to survive. Clostridium tetani possess a thick cell wall made up of multiple layers of peptidoglycan and one inner membrane. C. tetani are motile bacteria and move with the use of their of rotary flagellum. C. tetani in the presence of oxygen changes into its endospore form, the spores of Clostridium tetani are resistant to resistant to heat and some antiseptics which contribute to its ability to spread and infect organisms. Clostridium tetani affects humans by causing the disease tetanus. Clostridium tetani enters the body through an open wound where its spores can use the environment created by the dead cells to start its anaerobic processes. The spores begin to produce the toxin tetanospasmin, which travels throughout the body via the nervous system. Once tetanospasmin reaches the spinal cord where it begins to interfere with neurotransmitters which blocks messages to the brain this leads to unwanted muscle contractions and spasms, and individuals can experience severe seizures. Research Study- A 2008 study in Kano, Nigeria sought to determine the susceptibility of Clostridium tetani to various antibiotics. Soil was collected from five different locations and cultured under anaerobic conditions to observe the number of samples, which contained Clostridium tetani spores. The bacterium was observed in 60% of the soil samples. The samples were treated with amoxicillin, chloramphenicol, tetracycline, erythromycin, augmentin, co–trimoxazole, metronidazol, penicillin V, gentamycin, cloxacillin, sparfloxacin and ciprofloxacin to determine antibiotic susceptibility. The most effective antibiotic in preventing colony growth was observed to be sparfloxacin, with erythromycin, tetracycline, gentamycin, chloramphenicol, metronidazole and ciprofloxacin also preventing growth. The remaining antibiotics appeared to be inaffective against Clostridium tetani. (http://www. ajol. info/index. php/bajopas/article/viewFile/57539/45918) Mycobacterium tuberculosis- Is a acid fast bacterium that is rod shaped that usually form in clumps and are obligate aerobe. Mycobacterium tuberculosis has a cell envelope that contains a polypeptide layer, a peptidoglycan layer, and free lipids. In addition, there is also a complex structure of fatty acids such as mycolic acids that appear glossy. These lipids are resoponsible for the mycobacterium survival under environmental stressors. Mycobacterium tuberculosis utilizes its cell envelope to prevent it from drying out and allows it to survive weeks in dried septum also it makes Mycobacterium tuberculosis resistant to chemical antimicrobials. Mycobacterium tuberculosis reaches the lungs of a human by inhalation of bacillus, in the lungs, M. tuberculosis is taken up by alveolar macrophages, but they are unable to digest the bacterium. Its cell wall prevents the fusion of the phagosome with a lysosome allowing the bacterium to replicate with in the macrophage letting the disease spread. Mycobacterium tuberculosis causes the respiratory disease tuberculosis, which leaves a person infectious to spread the disease through the air, person to person, by the cough that they have devolped from the disease. Tuberculosis can infect anyone but is more common in immunosuppressed patients and if left untreated can be deadly. Vaccinating individuals with the BCG vaccine to stop the spread of this growing global epidemic is doing prevention of the spread of tuberculosis. Research Study- A group of scientists found that a newly identified protein with carboxyesterase activity is required for the virulence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. They found that the gene MT2282 encodes a protein that is associated with carboxyesterase. It hydrolyzes ester bonds of the substrate. When a strain containing a mutant of this gene was used to infect mice, the mice’s life was prolonged as compared with those that were infected with the wild type strain. (â€Å"Characterization of a novel cell wall-anchored protein with carboyesterase activity required for virulence in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The Journal of Biological Chemistry 2007) Treponema pallidum- is a Gram-negative bacterium, which is spiral in shape. It is an obligate internal parasite, which causes syphilis, a chronic human disease. Syphilis is a sexually transmitted disease but transmission can also occur between mother and child in utero; this is called congenital syphilis. Syphilis was first disc overed in Europe near the end of the fifteenth century. Treponema pallidum is an obligate internal parasite, meaning that it requires a mammalian host for survival. In the absence of mammalian cells, T. allidum will be killed by the absence of nutrients, exposure to oxygen and heat. T. pallidum lacks enzymes necessary to build complex molecules and loses its infectiousness when outside the host mammal for too long. T. pallidum has slim to none virulence factors but it produces several lipoproteins that induce and inflammatory response from the immune system resulting in the tissue destruction that goes along with this disease. Once T. pallidum infects the host it immediately enters the bloodstream and moves through deeper tissue with ease because of their corkscrew-like motility. Untreated syphilis progresses in a series of distinct stages. Primary syphilis usually presents itself as a single chancre at the site of infection. Secondary syphilis occurs approximately 3 months after infection and presents itself as lesions of the skin and mucous membranes. These include a rash commonly on the palms of the hands, soles of the feet, face, and scalp. The breakdown of mucous membranes appears as patches on lips, inside the mouth, vulva, and vagina. If untreated it may progress to tertiary phase. Tertiary syphilis can cause destructive lesions on skin and bones, which are usually benign. The more deadly manifestations of late syphilis affect the cardiovascular system and the central nervous system causing infected individuals to experience insomnia and changes in personality. If detected early syphilis is easily eradicated from the host by benzathine penicillin. Research Study- The current method for detecting syphilis is based on recognition of its signs and symptoms followed by blood tests which lack sensitivity and require fresh serum. The goal of this study was to develop a sensitive assay to directly test for syphilis. They were able to develop a TaqMan real-time PCR assay that was able to detect T. pallidum from â€Å"swabs and biopsy specimens from genital and mucosal ulcers, placental specimens, and cerebrospinal fluid. â€Å" Further research is required to confirm the accuracy of this new assay. This will be done by comparing results of this new method against other currently used test for syphilis. (:http://www. pubmedcentral. nih. gov/articlerender. fcgi? tool=pubmed;pubmedid=17065262) Chlamydia trachomatis- Is an obligate, aerobic, intracellular parasite of eukaryotic cells. It is a Gram-negative bacterium and has a coccoid or rod shape. It has a cytoplasmic membrane and outer membrane similar to Gram-negative bacteria but lacks a peptidoglycan cell wall. C. trachomatis require growing cells in order to remain viable since it cannot synthesize its own ATP. Without a host organism, Chlamydia trachomatis cannot survive on its own. C. trachomatis is the leading cause of sexually transmitted disease worldwide–in the United States, alone, over 4 million cases are diagnosed each year. It is also the leading cause of preventable blindness in the world. Chlamydia trachomatis is also one of the major causes of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) and infertility in women. Chlamydia is transmitted through infected secretions only. Usually, Chlamydia trachomatis is asymptomatic in its hosts, but can cause discharge from the penis, pain and burning during urination, infection or inflammation in the ducts of testicles, and tenderness or pain in the testicles. It infects mainly mucosal membranes, such as the cervix, rectum, urethra, throat, and conjunctiva. It is primarily spread via sexual contact and manifests as the sexually transmitted disease. The bacterium is not easily spread among women, so the STD is mainly transmitted by heterosexual or male homosexual contact. However, infected secretions from the genitals to the hands and eventually to the eyes can cause trachoma. There is no vaccine to stop the spread of Chlamydia but the disease can be cured very eaily with antibiotics. Research Study- Current research uses a live-attenuated form of the influenza A virus to provide viral vector for a vaccine against C. trachomatis. This vaccine is tested to be used intra-nasally. In the experiment, mice were intra-nasally immunized with influenza A viral recombinants. The result was a very strong immune, T helper 1, response against intact Chlamydia trachomatis elementary bodies. The genital secretions in the mice showed high levels of specific Th1 cells and elevated immunoglobulin G2a, which indicates a possibility of long term, protective immunity. This study, using C. trachomatis, is very important because it indicates that live attenuated vaccines of the influenza virus could be a new and reliable approach to preventing the spread of sexually transmitted disease. (http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/sites/entrez? Db=pubmed;Cmd=ShowDetailView;TermToSearch=17451464) Herpes simplex virus I and II- are two members of the herpes virus family, Herpesviridae, that infect humans. The structure of herpes viruses consists of a relatively large double-stranded, linear DNA genome encased within an icosahedral protein cage called the capsid, which is wrapped in a lipid bilayer called the envelope. The envelope is joined to the capsid by means of a tegument. This complete particle is known as the virion. A herpesvirus infection begins with attachment to and penetration of a host cell. Since herpesviruses are large DNA viruses, and they usually infect non-dividing cells, they encode enzymes involved in nucleic acid metabolism and DNA synthesis so they can copy their DNA once they enter the host cell. Herpesviruses replicate in the nucleus of the host cell. HSV-1 is the cause of oral herpes producing what are commonly known as cold sores. HSV-2 is the cause of genital herpes crating lesions and blisters on the genitals of the infected organism. Ss neurotropic and neuroinvasive viruses, HSV-1 and -2 persist in the body by becoming latent and hiding from the immune system in the cell bodies of neurons. After the initial or primary infection, some infected people experience sporadic episodes of viral reactivation or outbreaks. In an outbreak, the virus in a nerve cell becomes active and is transported via the neuron’s axon to the skin, where virus replication and shedding occur and cause new sores. HSV-1 and -2 can both be treated but never cured and rid from the body. Research Study- In this study, researchers applied an experimental feedback system control (FSC) method and rapidly identified optimal drug combinations that inhibit herpes simplex virus-1 infection, by only testing less than 0. % of the total possible drug combinations. Using antiviral efficacy as the criterion, FSC quickly identified a highly efficacious drug cocktail. This cocktail contained high dose ribavirin. Ribavirin, while being an effective antiviral drug, often induces toxic side effects that are not desirable in a therapeutic drug combination. To screen for less toxic drug combinations, we applied a second FSC search in cascade and used both high antiviral efficacy and low toxicity as criteria. Surprisingly, the new drug combination eliminated the need for ribavirin, but still blocked viral infection in nearly 100% of cases. This cascade search provides a versatile platform for rapid discovery of new drug combinations that satisfy multiple criteria. (http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pubmed/22654513) Epstein-Barr virus- Epstein Barr Virus (human herpesvirus 4 or EBV) is a member of the herpesvirdidae family. Epstein Barr Virus is the most common and most successful human virus. Epstein Barr Virus occurs worldwide, affecting anyone at any point in his or her lifetime, selectively infecting B-lymphocytes. Once infected the virus stays with the person for the rest of their life, remains latent in B cells after recovery from the disease. The structure of Epstein-Barr virus is a icosahedral nucleocapsid. The nucleocapsid is composed of 162 capsomers. The nucleocapsid is then surrounded by a protein outer covering, which is then surrounded by a viral envelope that contains numerous glycoproteins. EBV only infects humans. Replication of Epstein Barr Virus can occur in two ways: Infection of skin cells that results in lysis of host cells and release of virions. ; primary B-cell that results in latency infection. During this stage the virus is constantly being repilicated. The most common condition that EBV is associated with is infectious mononucleosis, which is transmitted via saliva and is characterized by proliferation of lymphocytes. The symptoms of infectious mononucleosis are fever, fatigue, sore throat, tonsillitis, adenopathy and hetatomegaly. The virus causes disease either by lysis of host cells to release virions or by continuous replication during the latency cycle. Research Study- Vaccine production- scientists are researchers are trying to create a vaccine for prevention of Epstein Barr Virus. The problem is with all the diseases that are caused by EBV, would be difficult to cure these diseases. Also most people with EBV don’t even know they have it and if there aren’t any clincial symptoms reported, researchers cannot create a vaccine. (2007. Pathogenesis and Therapy of Epstein-Barr Virus Infection: Novel Therapeutic Approaches. 1-37. In: New Developments in Epstein-Barr Virus Research. ) Hepatitis C virus- The virions of Hepatitis C virus are spherical and consist of an envelope and a nucleocapsid, a detergent sensitive lipoprotein envelops the virus capsid. The genome of hepatitis C virus is not segmented and contains a single molecule of linear positive-sense, single stranded RNA. Hepatitis C virus is spread by blood-to-blood contact, through unsterilized medical equipment, healthcare exposure, sexual intercourse, and drug use, its as only existent in humans and chimpanzees. The disease primarily affects the liver but often shows no sign of infection. When this viral disease reaches the chronic stage it leads to inflammation of the liver leading to the formation of scar tissue and cirrhosis. Cirrhosis can lead to liver failure or cancer and may result in the infected needing a liver transport. There is no vaccine currently available for the Hepatitis C virus. Research Study- Researchers conducting a open-label, phase 2a study included an exploratory cohort of 21 patients with chronic HCV genotype 1 infection who had not had a response to previous therapy. Researchers randomly assigned patients to receive the NS5A replication complex inhibitor daclatasvir (60 mg once daily) and the NS3 protease inhibitor asunaprevir (600 mg twice daily) alone (group A, 11 patients) or in combination with peginterferon alfa-2a and ribavirin (group B, 10 patients) for 24 weeks. The primary end point was the percentage of patients with a sustained virologic response 12 weeks after the end of the treatment period. This preliminary study involving patients with HCV genotype 1 infection who had not had a response to prior therapy showed that a sustained virologic response can be achieved with two direct-acting antiviral agents only. In addition, a high rate of sustained virologic response was achieved when the two direct-acting antiviral agents were combined with peginterferon alfa-2a and ribavirin. (http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. ov/pubmed/22256805) Hepatitis B virus- The virion consists of an outer lipid envelope and an icosahedral nucleocapsid core composed of protein. These virions are sometimes referred to as â€Å"Dane particles†. The nucleocapsid encloses the viral DNA and a DNA polymerase that has reverse transcriptase activity. The outer envelope contains embedded proteins that are involved in viral binding of, and entry into, susceptible cells. He patitis B virus is one of the smallest enveloped animal viruses. The protein of the virion coat is known as â€Å"surface antigen† or HBsAg. Hepatitis B virus is only found in humans and chimpanzees and was originally known as the serum virus. The virus is transmitted by exposure to infectious blood or body fluids such as semen and vaginal fluids. The acute illness causes liver inflammation, vomiting, jaundice and, rarely, death. Chronic hepatitis B may eventually cause cirrhosis and liver cancer but this disease responds poorly to treatment. Hepatitis B virus is currently preventable by vaccination. Research study- One thousand twenty pregnant women and 946 patients visiting for routine checkups were screened for HBV and HDV infection. Demographic, epidemiological, ethnic, clinical, and biological data were recorded. In pregnant women, exposure to HBV was significantly associated in multivariate analysis with education level, ethnicity, blood transfusion, and occupation. HDV antibodies (HDVAb) were found in 14. 7% of pregnant women. In patients, HBsAg was found less frequently in females than in males. Again in multivariate analysis, exposure to HBV was significantly correlated with gender (males), and HDVAb positivity with age and gender. This study confirms the high prevalence of HBV and HDV infections in Mauritania and demonstrates the high genetic diversity of HBV in this country. (http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pubmed/22711346) Influenza A virus- Is more commonly known as bird flu or avian influenza. Influenza A virus is part of the Orthomyxoviridae group. Influenza A viruses are negative sense, single-stranded, segmented RNA viruses. There are two different classifications of Influenza A virus, highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPIA) and mildly or non-pathogenic avian influenza (MPIA). The virus has a protein envelope encasing it. There are different variations of Influenza A virus based on their H number (for the type of hemagglutinin) and an N number (for the type of neuraminidase), which gives it the name H1N5. Wild birds are the natural host for all known subtypes of Influenza A viruses but it is known to infect domestic birds as well becoming a natural killer for them and also passing this disease, although rare, onto humans. There is currently a Influenza A virus vaccine developed to help stop the spread of an Influenza A virus epidemic if one were to ever occur. Research Study- Researches debate on a global scale, about bioethics, biohazard, bio weaponry and bioterrorism issues related to scientific research concerning the induced transition of the highly lethal H5N1 avian flu virus from a non-pandemic to a tentatively pandemic strain, which might fall into malevolent hands. Appreciable ecogenetic complexity marks the main attributes of influenza type A viruses, namely infectivity, virulence, antigenicity, transmissibility, host range, endemicity, and epidemicity. They all shape, conjunctively, the outstanding protean nature of this pathogen, hence the modularity of the latter as a potent weapon. Altogether, a variety of interrelated properties underlying the complicatedness of and menaces posed by influenza A virus as a grave medical challenge, a dually explorable pathogen, and a modular biological warfare agent, are thereby illuminated, alongside with their scientific, strategic and practical implications. (http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pubmed/22690739) Human immunodeficiency virus- Is a positive-sense single stranded RNA virus that belongs to the genus Lentivirus and the family Reteroviridae. The virions of an HIV consist of an envelope, a nucleocapsid, a nucleoid, and a matrix protein. The virus capsid is enveloped. The virions are spherical to pleomorphic with small but high numbers of surface projections that are called glycoprotein spikes that allow the virus to dock to amplifier cells slowing down immune system response. The replication of HIV can only take place inside human cells. The process typically begins when a virus particle bumps into a cell that carries a special protein called CD4 on its surface. The spikes on the surface of the virusparticle stick to the CD4 to allow the viral envelope to fuse with the cell membrane. HIV particle contents are then released into the cell, leaving the envelope behind. The HIV enzyme reverse transcriptase converts the viral RNA into DNA, which is compatible to human genetic material, when the virus is inside the cell. This DNA is transported to the cell’s nucleus, where it is spliced into human DNA by the HIV enzyme integrase. The HIV DNA is known as provirus after it is integrated. HIV takes over the body by attacking CD4 helper T cells lowering its levels leaving the body unable to create a proper immune response and leaving it susceptible to infection. Human immunodeficiency virus has three stages in its infectious process before full-blown Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome is in motion. Human immunodeficiency virus has a short life surviving just 6 hours outside the cell and 1 and ? days inside the cell. Sexual contact, breast milk, transplants, and blood-to-blood contact transmit human immunodeficiency virus. Human immunodeficiency virus is the causative agent of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS), which leads to many other opportunistic infections, leading most people to die from the new infections rather then AIDS or HIV itself. There is currently no vaccine or treatment for Human immunodeficiency virus but with proper precautionary measures you can control the spread of the virus. Research Study- Researches have discovered that SAMHD1 restricts the infection of dendritic and other myeloid cells by human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), but in lentiviruses of the simian immunodeficiency virus of sooty mangabey (SIVsm)-HIV-2 lineage, SAMHD1 is counteracted by the virion-packaged accessory protein Vpx. Here we found that SAMHD1 restricted infection by hydrolyzing intracellular deoxynucleoside triphosphates (dNTPs), lowering their concentrations to below those required for the synthesis of the viral DNA by reverse transcriptase (RT). SAMHD1-mediated restriction was alleviated by the addition of exogenous deoxynucleosides. An HIV-1 with a mutant RT with low affinity for dNTPs was particularly sensitive to SAMHD1-mediated restriction. Vpx prevented the SAMHD1-mediated decrease in dNTP concentration and induced the degradation of human and rhesus macaque SAMHD1 but had no effect on mouse SAMHD1. Nucleotide-pool depletion could be a general mechanism for protecting cells from infectious agents that replicate through a DNA intermediate. (http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pubmed/22327569) Trichomonas vaginalis- Is a parasitic, flagellated protozoan anaerobe. The appearance of this protozoan is altered by physiochemical conditions. In a pure culture, the shape is more uniform such as pear-shaped or oval. As a parasite, it appears more amoeboid when attached to the vaginal epithelial cells. It has five flagella—four of which are in the anterior and the other flagellum is incorporated within the undulating membrane. The flagella and the undulating membrane contribute to its motility. The cytoskeleton is made of tubulin and actin fibers. The nucleus, surrounded by a porous nuclear envelope, is located at its anterior end. A thin hyaline, rod-like structure called the axostyle begins at the nucleus and bisects the protozoan longitudinally. It protrudes through the posterior portion of the protozoan, ending in a sharp point. The axostyle helps anchor the protozoan to the vaginal epithelial cells. Trichomonas vaginalis causes Trichomoniasis which is the most prevalent non-viral sexually transmitted disease. Trichomoniasis is more common in women than men because men have asymptomatic infections. For women, the symptoms are thin frothy, green-yellow vaginal discharge; vulvovaginal irritation, vaginal soreness, and redness of the vagina. Women also have a higher prevalence of invasive cervical cancer when they have trichomoniasis. During pregnancy, there is an increased risk of preterm and low weight babies. Men have non-gonoccocal urethritis and chronic prostatitis. This infection has been found to be associated with prostate cancer. In both sexes, there is a higher susceptibility to HIV and infertility. There are no vaccines avaliabe for to decrease the spread of Trichomonas vaginalis but Trichomoniasis is a curable disease with antibiotics. Research Study- Besides being transmitted sexually, there have been cases of nonsexual transmission of trichomoniasis such as contaminated douche nozzles, specula, toilet seats, or swimming pool water. The role of public swimming pools in spreading the disease is controversial yet there is little research done. The viability of T. vaginalis in samples of water was reexamined by Pereira-Neves and Benchimol. They concluded that T. vaginalis remains viable and infective in swimming pool water samples for several hours. The survival time is dependent on the cytotoxicity of the strain. The possible transmission of trichomoniasis in public swimming pools may be low. (http://www. mendeley. com/research/trichomonas-vaginalis-vitro-survival-swimming-pool-water-samples/) Plasmodium species- Is a parasite that forms sporozites and is the cause for human malaria. There are four types of Plasmodium that cause human malaria: Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium ovale, Plasmodium vivax, and Plasmodium malariae. The sporozoites have a thin outer membrane, a double inner membrane below which lies the subpelicular microtubules. They have 3 polar rings and the rhoptries are long, extending half the length of the body. The micronemes, convoluted elongate bodies, run forward to the anterior of the sporozoite entering a common duct with the rhoptries. After entering the circulatory system, the sporozoites make quick work of invading liver cells using the apical organelles inside the host’s liver cell the Plasmodium cell undergoes asexual replication. The products of this replication, called merozoites, are released into the circulatory system. The merozoites invade erythrocites and become enlarged ring-shaped trophozoites. In this stage the cells ingest the host cytoplasm and proteolyze hemoglobin into amino acids. Plasmodium species infect humans by an infected Anophele mosquito bites a human and the sporozoites of a Plasmodium species are injected into the blood with the saliva causing malaria. Malaria symptoms may go unnoticed or misdiagnosed; clinical signs include fever, chills, weakness, headache, vomiting, diarrhea, anemia, pulmonary and renal dysfunction, neurologic changes and untreated malaria may result in death. To prevent the spread of malaria precautions are being taken to monitor the dsease with in the mosquito population and measure and taken to reduce it. Research Study- Incidence rates and vulnerability to malaria are linked to low socioeconomic status. Areas with concentrated populations of people with low socioeconomic status typically do not have resources for effective prevention and subsequent treatment. For example, a study conducted by Gwatkin and Guillot showed â€Å"58% of malaria deaths occurred in the poorest 20% of the world’s population, a higher percentage than any other disease of major public health importance†. Public health interventions intended to reach areas with people of low socioeconomic status may not be reaching their target population. Barat et al. ote that in developing countries, the poor â€Å"often live in the most remote areas and are socially or culturally marginalized† (http://www. cdc. gov/malaria/) Candida albicans- is a diploid fungus that grows both as yeast and filamentous cells and a causal agent of opportunistic oral and genital infections in humans and id the number one c ause of yeats infections in the U. S.. Candida albicans is commensal and a constituent of the normal gut flora comprising microorganisms that live in the human mouth and gastrointestinal tract. C. albicans lives in 80% of the human population without causing harmful effects. Candidiasis is often observed in immunocompromised individuals such as HIV-infected patients. A common form of candidiasis restricted to the mucosal membranes in mouth or vagina is thrush, which is usually easily cured in people who are not immunocompromised. To infect host tissue, the usual unicellular yeast-like form of C. albicans reacts to environmental cues and switches into an invasive, multicellular filamentous form, a phenomenon called dimorphism. Treatment is easily achieved by various medicines including antifungal drugs and topical ointments. Research Study- Recent research is still being conducted in hopes of finding a permanent means of dealing with Candida albicans and its resistance to certain drugs. Just within the last year, a Japanese university has taken the steps to specifically target the areas which allow the fungus to have resistance. They have observed that an ATP efflux inactivates the CDR1 and CDR2 genes which are responsible for drug resistance. Without the proper energy to activate the pump to rid of the antifungal agents, the resistance itself is in fact inoperable. The research team has also tried targeting other areas, such as stopping the production of mannan and glucan to prevent the structure of the cell wall. However, their main results show the cooperation between peptides and antifungal drugs. The results of this research will be used to treat other fungal and possible bacterial microbes that have drug resistant qualities (Antimicrobial peptides enhance the candidacidal activity of antifungal drugs by promoting the efflux of ATP from Candida cells. † Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 2007) Cryptococcus neoformans- Is a round encapsulated yeast that causes meningitis in humans. The disease is acquired by coming in contact with contaminated soil but especially in solid that is contaminated with bird droppings. Cryptococcus neoformans reproduces by budding and produces spores that are then inhaled by a person. Once the dried fungi spores are inhaled the spread through out the central nervous system causing meningitis and severe lung infections. Cryptococcus neoformans is especially dangerous for immunocompromised individuals such as AIDS patients, and also has a mortality rate of 30%. Cryptococcus neoformans can be treated with an antifungal medicine called fluconazole. Research Study- Dendritic cells (DCs) play a pivotal role in host defense against invading pathogens including fungi, while DCs are targeted by fungi for deleterious regulation of the host immune response. A few studies have reported fungal modulation of DC function in these immunocompromised AIDS patients. Cryptococcus. neoformans (C. neoformans) is referred as one of the opportunistic fungi of AIDS. Here, researchers isolated native C. neoformans from an AIDS patient and investigated its effects on DC activation and How to cite Microbiology Research Paper, Essays

Business Marketing APMC Company

Question: Discuss about the Business Marketing APMC Company. Answser: Introduction The study of business market divisions and diversification in a systematic manner via planning, joined decisions of owners, executing with the help of advertising and so on. The plan can be analyzed with the help of launching alcoholic products in Singapore through Specialized professional company APMC. APMC is into the business of consumable film i.e. A product strictly uses to secure the goods during transportation or during loading and unloading the pallets. AMPC specialized in supplying film either by purchase from other parties or through his own manufacturing to many countries like Africa, North America, European countries (Zimmerman and Blythe 2013). AMPCs main target and presenting their goods for sell of film is to capture market of liquor making companies like Bear, Spirits, Wine and so on, for their packaging and storing the pallets and with the help of film to cover the pallets and delivering the product to the supplier without hassle(Yang and Su 2014). Highly Experienced and specialized in marketing management personals from KPMC with holding position of country sales head are intensely involved equally to plan a sales target and understand the market segments demand of Singapore. Singapore has been selected to understand and study market target strategy to meet customers demand in each sections of market of reputed well known brand or via competitors product demand. Monopoly business of KPMC has helped to explore its market to several other countries and through which its management has learned the market nature and its economical changes increases and decreases the demands accordingly in emerging market. Identification of information about the segments in the market APMC a company specialized in supplying film into secured pallet loads not only manufacture but they sometimes buy a consumable film locally to meet their market demand globally. The task is all about market divisions and study of alcoholic drink being introduced in Singapore through APMC. A big challenge for APMC to hold the market for its goods as its an era of competition where every day new techniques changes the customers demand. Australian manufacturers recently have bought quick changes on the method of wrapping consumable items like Coca-Cola, Carlton breweries, international drink makers etc. Diversification of market brings the manufacturers and suppliers at a point of negotiation to satisfy the customers need (Brennan 2012). Whats make APMC superior from others is their smart way of marketing through promotion, networking and upgraded system of communication. With the help of below graph , we can point the difference between Consumer and Business market. The project is all about to learn the market nature through well-organized plan of launching a alcoholic products in one of the modernized country like, Singapore with the support of well-known company APMC. Consumer Market Business Market Segmentation Variables Segmentation Variables Geographic It includes population density, region and climate Geographic This includes regional industrial growth, location, and customer concentration. Demographic It includes age, ethnicity, education, religion, and family status Type of customer It has size of the organization, and the value chain. Behavioral It includes price sensitivity, brand loyalty and other pursuit of benefits Buyer behavior Loyalty to the suppliers, order size and other usage patterns Psychographic It includes values, opinions, lifestyles and customers activities. Table 1: Market segmentation Market segmentation Launching a new product , into market needs well strategic marketing plan, and its success primary depends on consumers acceptance which fulfills target of supplier (Chang, Lee and Ryu 2014).According to customers psychology , to overcome competitors sometime rather than launching new product, similar running product is more beneficial to launch as it has already took place in customers mind. To value new product, buyers mind to be win by superlative business strategy (Gupta, Rudd and Lee 2014). Market can be segmented by means of demographic, psychographic and geographic segmentation. While the product is priced at an attractive rate, it is easily acceptable by means of all income class. Further, the Company product caters to both the genders and customers of ages above 18 years of age. The Companys current business strategy is focused on Singapore, which forms its geographic form of segmentation. Further, psychographic segmentation reflects that generally majority of working class resorts to consuming of alcoholic products. Thus, the scope of target market for the current product is high as compared to rest of the products. Selection of information about the segment which APMC would develop a targeted marketing strategy Worlds largest producing alcoholic beverages countries are USA, China and Brazil (Hutt and Speh 2013).. APMC would be more keen to target these markets rather than to other countries to lay out successful business plan. China has targeted budget for 2019 around 71,370.8 compare to its figure of 2014 budget of 60,893.2, whereas Singapore has planned to touch 144.2 in 2019. Liquor business has high taxation charges than any other business, due to less demand in 2014, alcoholic business had a low business in 2014. Todays generation are more attracted to drinks which has increases the demand and targeted more production and supply which benefited government with charging of more taxation increased (LaPlaca 2014).. Multiple brands captured market of Asian countries like Heineken, Tiger and Baron. APMC is a company expertise in manufacturing and supply of film, which is mainly used to safeguard the overall product in to pallet loads. A target marketing strategy through which suppliers set their goal to sell a product to customers who are keen to buy a product manufactured. Total Volume 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 Singapore 138.4 139 139.8 141 142.4 144.2 Table 2 Total Volume of Alcoholic Beverages in Upcoming Years Figure 1 Trend in Alcoholic Volumes in Singapore Singapore government with the help of government legislations opened the gates of easy finance for alcohol consumption for public. Maximum public are more into consumption of beer than other alcoholic drinks because of its less percentage of alcohol. Buyers tend to attract more to well packaged goods than to less attractive. packaging plays a key role for a product demand. Branding too is also very important part of sales. Customer who daily use product prefer to buy their selected alcoholic brands (Paiola, Gebauer and Edvardsson (2012).Therefore, packaging is a tool helps to gain long term demand of a product. So, more the customers being attracted to a product by marketing strategy , more the demand in market for a product . APMC has successfully with its best marketing strategy has captured around 63% position in Singapore market. Hence, targeting a customers and fulfilling their demand through marketing skills made APMC achieved high level (Ray 2013). Figure 2 Percentages for Typical Wine Brand Figure 3 Percentages for Typical Beer Brand Therefore it has been cleared that, marketing skills and well graphed plan is foremost important to launch a product and its success in market. Now let us see from different angle, in a contrasting way, let us choose different tool for marketing a alcohol product. Demand in market is the factor which helps the manufacturers to set the goals of their business and accordingly services provided in market. One supplier can sell multiple brands of alcohols which increases their profit margin (Ruiz-Molina and Gil-Saura 2012). Marketing first step is to set the goals and target to capture the consumer market. This goal will aim to long term success and long term financial gain keeping in mind public class, area, demands, taste and population. Competitors are another important factor which could help for achieving long term goals. Study the competitors market and keeping demand of customers already using alcohol brands helps to wins buyers demand(Safir 2013).Analyzing the market demand as pe r needs through every possible communication skills. Analysis of all relevant and critical areas of business segmentation reveals that there is a high propensity to consume in the markets of Singapore towards alcohol. Here we will discuss, the Market of Singapore in the form of product demand, and its sales, the business nature of present and future. Justification for the choice of the segment that APMC should target APMC has developed and improved marketing skills with changing economic growth and demand in market which makes them successful in developing brands. They have targeting a product in market which already have captured market with old brands well known in public. APMC main target is to meet demand of packaging material through their manufacturing to wrap the product launched in Singapore by alcoholic brand in beer. The market scenario can be judge via selling of demanded products and to build a reputation for future demands. APMC has been taken as a backbone to discover such market demand of Singapore. As people tend to intact more of beer because of its less percentage of alcohol, flavored beer will make boom sales and will be very profitable (Starkman 2013). This justification in choice of target market will not only allow to develop and grow business for the current Company but also cater to business goals. Presentation of the market analysis information AMPC good marketing analysis job would help for appropriate marketing planning, skills, advertising and supplying of launched beer brand in Singapore. The key success lies in the brand name of the company and their marketing demand (Storbacka and Nenonen 2012). Secondly, market supply monopoly and demand would depend on the financial capacity of a company to launch a product through man power, advertising and many other ways. Since alcohol in Singapore have more demand, the launch of flavored beer liked by all age group people, spread popularity of its taste faster(Tatic 2014). Countrys 70% of custom duties develops more from alcohol beverages than any other. Rather than beverages like whisky, rum, scotch and so on, have levied more custom duties, being more taken by wholesalers , duties than beer and wine. The retail outlet like bars and wine shops in 2009 had demand around 646.3 which gradually increases in 2014 to 962.5. If we compare this to packaging material of APMC. Its showing contrasting demand. The Singapore market demands more of premium brands than any others (Zimmerman and Blythe 2013). Which has attracted more of customers demand and interest of customers to buy more of new launches beer product? The wholesalers and retail percentages for different beverages is given in Figure 4. Figure 4 Wholesalers and Retailers Mark ups in 2014 Different countries have different tax system. Singapore charge custom duties manufacturing goods are payable. More the profit in alcoholic drinks more the duty payable in form of tax to government. Demand in 2014 was so high that it made 25% in duty charges. So, alcohol price depends on demand in market which is very flexible. Market of alcohol has more demand with the increasing economic and cultural demand (Yang and Su 2014). This provides the new firm with immense opportunity and growth related aspects. Thus, the scope of the Company is well catered to and defined with these various segmentation and marketing strategies. Conclusion Finally, the main idea we get from this overall project is with ever-changing demands worldwide, proper planning, advertising through media and promotional activities in Singapore through APMC .Demand of alcohol beverages through upgraded planning can launch a successful bear brand in Singapore. The project gave knowledge how detailed market study and planning would be profitable in both increasing sales and financially and in turns how it bonds the relationship with customers. Establishing relationship with customers is crucial for the growth and development of target market. Hence, such enhanced segmentation of market will not only allow to meet the diversified objectives but also in business growth after entering into the market of choice. References Armstrong, G. and Kotler, P. (2013). Marketing. Boston: Prentice Hall. Brennan, R. (2012). Reconnecting Marketing to Markets, by Luis Araujo, John Finch, and Hans Kjellberg (eds). Journal of Business-to-Business Marketing, 19(4), pp.392-395. Chang, D., Lee, K. and Ryu, S. (2014). Korea as a Comparative Business Marketing System: Review and Prospects. Journal of Business-to-Business Marketing, 21(4), pp.213-236. Gupta, S., Rudd, J. and Lee, N. (2014). Business sustainability through successful integration of marketing and operations. Industrial Marketing Management, 43(1), pp.3-5. Hutt, M. and Speh, T. (2013). Business marketing management. Australia: South-Western, Cengage Learning. LaPlaca, P. (2014). Innovation in business networks. Industrial Marketing Management, 43(3), pp.359-360. Mysen, T., Svensson, G. and Hgevold, N. (2012). Relationship QualityRelationship Value and Power Balance in Business Relationships: Descriptives and Propositions. Journal of Business-to-Business Marketing, 19(3), pp.248-285. Paiola, M., Gebauer, H. and Edvardsson, B. (2012). Service Business Development in Small- to Medium-Sized Equipment Manufacturers. Journal of Business-to-Business Marketing, 19(1), pp.33-66. Ray, R. (2013). The Facebook guide to small business marketing. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley Sons, Inc. Ruiz-Molina, M. and Gil-Saura, I. (2012). Relationship and Market Conditions: Outcomes in Marketing Channels. Journal of Business-to-Business Marketing, 19(4), pp.289-308. Safir, R. (2013). Marketing and merchandising for musicians. Boston, MA: Course Technology, Cengage Learning. Skrob, R. (2013). Start your own information marketing business. Irvine: Entrepreneur Press. Starkman, D. (2013). The best business writing 2013. New York: Columbia University Press. Storbacka, K. and Nenonen, S. (2012). Competitive Arena Mapping: Market Innovation Using Morphological Analysis in Business Markets. Journal of Business-to-Business Marketing, 19(3), pp.183-215. Tatic, V. (2014). Ethical review of the problem business espionage. Marketing, 45(2), pp.157-165. Yang, Z. and Su, C. (2014). Institutional theory in business marketing: A conceptual framework and future directions. Industrial Marketing Management, 43(5), pp.721-725. Zimmerman, A. and Blythe, J. (2013). Business to business marketing management. New York, NY: Routledge.

Munchausen Syndrome

The Lincoln Assassination Essays - United States, Free Essays

The Lincoln Assassination Essays - United States, Free Essays The Lincoln Assassination On April, 14 1865 President Abraham Lincoln was shot while watching a performance of An American Cousin at Ford?s Theater. President Lincoln died the next morning. The person who had killed Lincoln was John Wilkes Booth. A few days before he was killed, Lincoln had told his spouse about a dream he had, he saw a president shrouded on a catafalque in the east room of the White House. Even after this dream he attended An American Cousin at Ford?s Theater. John Wilkes Booth thought the president was determined to destroy the constitution, set aside the rights reserved to the states, crush civil liberties, and restore monarchy. He saw the confederacy was the only means to of upholding the values of the founding fathers. He devoted much of late 1864 and early 1865 to a series of plots to abduct Lincoln and use his capture to nullify the Union?s war aims. Every scheme ending in frustration. After Lee had surrendered to the Army of the Potomac, in the second week of April, he saw that only the most desperate measures offered any hope of salvaging the Southern Cause. Shortly before he went into the theater, he stopped at tavern for a drink. While in the bar an acquaintance jokingly remarked that "he would never be as great as his father," Booth replied by saying "When I leave the stage, I will be the most talked about man in America." The Atlanta Campaign of 1864 In the spring of 1864, Gen. W. T. Sherman concentrated the Union armies of G. H. Thomas, J. B. McPherson, and J. M. Schofield around Chattanooga. On May 6 he began to move along the railroad from Chattanooga to Atlanta. Sherman had two objectives, one was to destroy the army of General J. E. Johnston and the other was to capture Atlanta. Johnston realizing that he was outnumbered started to retreat south. Sherman tried a direct assault on Johnston?s forces and was repulsed. Johnston had retreated back to the south bank of the Chattahoochee river. On July 17, John Bell Hood replaced Johnston as General. He tried to continue with Johnston?s plan, but failed to stop the advance of Union troops. He retired to Atlanta, which Sherman soon had under bombardment. On September 1 Hood abandoned Atlanta, the next day Sherman moved in and burned it. The Maryland Invasion A year after the confederate defeat at Gettysburg. Robert E. Lee planned to invade the North again like he did in the campaigns of Antietam and Gettysburg. He hoped that this would be enough to get Grant to detach part of his army to protect Maryland, Pennsylvania and Washington City, or to have Grant attach fortifications and risk heavy lose. Miscellaneous Fort Pillow Massacre: An incident that took place in Fort Pillow, Tennessee, April 12, 1864. Confederate troops commanded by General N. B. Forrest, stormed and captured Fort Pillow on the Mississippi River. The garrison of black soldiers and Tennessee Unionist held out beyond all possible hope. The joint committee on the Conduct of War investigated and charged that the Confederates indiscriminately slaughtered more than 300 black soldiers. General Sherman was ordered to investigate, but his report was never published. Battle of Franklin: November 30, 1864, a Civil War engagement in which the Confederate forces were defeated. After abandoning Atlanta, General Hood reorganized the Confederate army at Lovejoy?s Station. His hope was too cut off Sherman?s lines of communication.

California History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

California History - Essay Example Had I surveyed myself, the percentage would have been even lower. The story of Califia is largely classified as a myth but to what extent is known only to Spanish explorers. The island of California, as described in a 1510 novel by Garci Ordonez de Montalvo, was located near the coast of Southeast Asia and inhabited by only women, large, muscular Amazon women. Califia was well known for her humanitarian efforts and for her sense of loyalty to the island people. She dealt fairly with friend and foe alike and had the ability to travel the world whenever she pleased. The weapons were made of gold as were all other metallic objects because gold was the only type of metal found on the island. A glorious, exotic setting to be sure whether it was real or imagined (Wright, 2005). When Spanish explores found what is today known as Baja California, they thought it to be an island. No shame in this as GPS positioning systems would not exist for another half a millennia or so. Maybe the explorers found gold or dark woman when they landed, no one knows, or maybe the recently published novel was fresh on their mind and the story was deemed worthy of naming a previously unknown (to Europeans) piece of land. The name ‘California’, as some have suggested, may not originate from Queen Califia at all but was derived from a combination of the Spanish words Caliente and fornia meaning ‘hot oven.’ Others point to the Latin words Calida and Fornax meaning ‘hot furnace’ (Zwinger, 1961). Baja California’s climate has certainly been described accurately as both metaphors but the Amazon story is much more entrancing. The romantic and adventurous lives that the Spanish explorers led is evidence enough to me that they would likely nam e what they found to be a large exotic island after a large, exotic and adventurous Queen rather than the benign and unimaginative name.

Internet is knocking down university walls Essay

Internet is knocking down university walls - Essay Example The replacement of classroom based university level education with online education has several benefits to offer to the adult students. There are various reasons due to which top universities such as the Harvard University has started offering online university courses. One of the main reasons is that adult learners who are university going students find it easier to study through online university programs rather than classroom based university programs. Adult learners have started accepting online education as an alternative to classroom based education due to the several benefits offered by online education. Due to this the number of adults obtaining online education is increasing with the passage of time. A research was conducted by Parker et al. in which the researchers identified that one in every four American college students is taking online courses (Parker et al., 2011). Due to these various benefits along with the high number of students interested in online education, universities have started offering online education. There are several benefits that online university education has to offer to adult learners. One of the major benefits that university level students obtain from online education is that this form of education does not interfere with their professional and personal lives. Neighbors conducted a study in which he identified that there were two main reasons due to which adult learners were opting for online university courses. One of the reasons due to which they were pursuing online university courses was that this form of education provided them with flexibility to obtain education along with professional work and personal life. Another major benefit that adults obtain by attaining online education is that this form of education allows them to move forward in their careers. Attending a university is not an appropriate option for all working adults. This because they do not get enough

Managing across culture, international business Essay

Managing across culture, international business - Essay Example Given such a role, I would get to learn the different employees, their cultural background and their culture, for example, learn about their holy days. This is essential as societal cultures influences how employees understand the terms of the employment relationship i.e. what they expect from the employer, and what they think they owe them. Secondly, with reliance on such information, I would design effective communication and reward systems that will address the expectation from these different groups. This should help to retain key employees and increase loyalty, commitment and performance. I would develop mechanisms strategies and programs focused on cross functional team projects and mentoring programs. Such encourages interaction, build trust, and promote shared identity amongst employees, which would help employees understand each other’s culture in an informal setup. This effort should help to arrest cultural intolerance and shock in the business set up among the employees from different cultures. To add, I would lead by the example, promoting cultural tolerance, emphasizing the importance of diversity, adopting policies and procedures that support diversity, anti-discrimination, anti-harassment, holding staff and any other person accountable for any intolerance and providing training an awareness in the work

The History About The Tourism Industry Tourism Essay

The History About The Tourism Industry Tourism Essay Comprehensive project report is part of the MBA sem 3 and 4 curriculum. Under which 2 students in one group are supposed to study one industry and so we have selected TOURISM INDUSTRY for our study. Tourism Industry is one of the fastest growing industries in the world with an average GDP of 11.6%. Changing lifestyle of the people because of a sudden increase in their income levels accredited to the opening up of the economy and Multinational Corporation has led to the steep growth of tourism industry in India. Tourists attention is shifting from established destinations such as European countries to emerging destination such as Asia-pacific countries. Travel barriers have been broken and there is a flow of free trade. Tourism has become multiple activates focused with the integration of shopping and recreation, entertainment and education and culture and business center development. Tourism Industry is deeply affected by the social, technological, economic factors. All these factors have been given their due credit in the project. Economy being the bloodline of any country has been devoted a major chunk in the study of these factors followed by social and technological factors. Government policies provide a basic framework, which minds and controls every industry. Therefore, it has to be studied so that not a single factor remains untouched. For the development of any industry the basic infrastructure facilities are very important. Indian railway is the worlds largest network under a single management. The railway is one of the facilities required for tourism besides aviation, telecommunications and accommodation. Tour operators and travel agents perform the role of a liaison and a catalyst too in this industry without whom it is very difficult to operate. . As we know that tourism industry of India is growing at a very fast pace so in this we have project also deals with the current scenario and the challenges faced by the tourism industry of India. A few suggestions about development of tourism in India have been market in the project such as planning, organizational structure, business process reengineering, information systems, operations management, marketing strategy formulation, environmental impact assessment and project management. GROWTH AND EVOLUTION OF TOURISM INDUSTRY IN INDIA The fall of Roman Empire resulted into downfall of tourism, at least till the end of Middle East. The available facts reveal that Roman evinced interest in visiting temples, shrines, festivals and baths for health and amusement. The contours of Development underwent radical change at least till the 15th century. The trade and commerce along with religious activities gained the momentum but till the beginning of industrial revolution, tourism continued to remain the matter of pilgrimage. Of Course a number of developments took place between 15th and 18th centuries. Specially In the industrial world which raised the significance of specialization or expertise for excelling competition. This motivated the elite of the society to go abroad for enriching the knowledge, speeding up the learning cycle developing the excellence and making possible cross fertilization of thoughts and ideas. By the turn of 19th century, we find multifaceted development in transportation, communication and, tec hnological sophistication, which energized the process of industrial transformation. The tourism started developing as a business and the professional Travel agents started taking part in the process. With the beginning of the 20th century the process of invention and innovation stated gaining momentum which made ways for the development of infrastructural facilities and further added new dimensions in tourism business. No doubts, the World War I and World War II obstructed the flow of development but the second half of the 20th century proved to be golden age, since almost all the countries of the world started patronizing tourism as an important economic activity. Thomas cook was of the view that beauty is for the people. The opinion of Mr. Cook generated new dimension in the tourism business, which paved copious avenues for development of tourism as an industry. We cant deny that since the time immemorial travel has been first choice of masses , the qualitative improvement in the process could take place with the participation and co-operation of leading global organization , such as WORLD TOURIST ORGANISATION, PACIFIC AREA TRAVEL ASSOCIATION, INTERNATIONAL UNION OF OFFICIAL TRAVEL ORGANISATION or so With the development of a broader concept, the essence of Tourism further distilled and it was more holistic approach because in the general theory of tourism, Walter Hunziker and Kurt Kraph (1942) considered it both a human As well as economic activity. In 1974, Burkat and Medlik again brushed up this approach since they viewed tourism as a composite phenomenon embracing a whole range of different relationship between travelers and the host popu lation. The intensity foreign exchange requirement was found at its peak and the tourism appeared to all of them an important source to be tapped optimally. In the face of succulent benefit, the developed, less developed and even the Developing countries started assigning due weight age to the tourism industry in their national development agenda. We agree with this view that with tremendous Socio-economic potential, the tourism industry is considered to be an economic bonanza which paves avenues for the Development of a number of allied Industries, such as hotel, communication, banking transportation, trade and commerce or so. In addition, we also consider tourism a potential source for making possible world peace through mutual appreciation and international understanding. In the Indian perspective, we find Seventh Five Year Plan as watershed in the Development of tourism industry. For the first time, the vast potential of tourism as a foreign exchange earner and generator of employment opportunities was recognized. Several policy initiatives were taken to develop the tourism sector In the development of tourism, the public sector has made a significant contribution. Of late, the industry is equipped with a reasonable infrastructural base and is poised for a self-sustained growth. The future growth of tourism is required to be activated with the support of the private sector. The strategy for the development of tourism is required to be designed on the basis of low-cost economy, higher level productivity, efficiency in the use of infrastructure and sophisticated tourist facilities. The tourism industry bounced back from the global economic slowdown of last year with 2011 poised to show a positive growth number. As a matter of fact tourism is one of the largest industries globally, both in terms of size and employment ($5.4 trillion and 8.6 per cent of the global workforce.) Indian tourism industry contributes 6.4% of total GDP. This compares to 3.3% for automotives manufacturing, 4.5% for education and 3.7% for the mining industry. So INR 6.7 billion is contributing from tourism industry in India. PRODUCT PROFILE 1. Holiday as a Base Mass Market, Popular Market 2. Demand as base Primary, Secondary opportunity 3. Geography as a base Cities, Provinces, Regions, Countries 4. Psychography as a base Lifestyle, Personality Motive, Product, Knowledge. 5. Demography as a base Age, Sex, Occupation, Class, Religion. 6. Socio-economic of base Rich, Poor, Rural, Urban, Literate, Illiterate 7. Purpose as a base Business Travel, Cultural Tourism, Common Interest 8. Age as base Kids, Teens, Youths, Young, Married, Single. The holiday base focuses or attention on the fact that long-distance tours require availability of more leisure hours. The holiday market is classified in terms of demand. The different categories are, the mass market, the popular market and the individual holiday market. The mass market involves largest number of- vacationists who generally travel in long groups. They prefer all-inclusive tours. The users belong to the conservative group in which we find skilled and semi-skilled workers, blue-collar employees as the potential users. The users are generally class one and class two groups, pensioners and retired people. The individual holiday market involves social group-A7 like corporate chairman and senior executives. We find an apparent change in the behavioral profile of different categories in the holiday base. Another base is purpose in which we find business travel market, cultural tourism market, common interest tourism market and conference and convention. The demand base classifies markets into primary tourism market, secondary tourism and opportunity tourism. The geographic base includes lifestyle, personality, motives, product and knowledge. The demography base covers age, sex occupation, class and religion. The socioeconomic base makes classification like rich, poor, rural, urban, literate and illiterate. The age-base classifies markets for kids, teens, youths, young married and old people market. The aforesaid small segments simplify the task of tourist professionals. They know about the changing needs and requirements of different segments and innovate their strategic decisions accordingly. The development of marketing resources in tune with the changing levels of expectations make the ways for the stimulation of demand and simplify the task or marketers. It is in this context that we need to segment the market for the different allied industries helping the tourism industry in many ways. Designing a Package Tour In the process of formulating a sound product strategy, there are a number of factors to be given due attention. The designing of a package tour occupies a place of outstanding significance. For the profitable marketing of tourism services, it is pertinent that the different components of product are managed in a right fashion. This gravitates our attention on the offering of a package holiday product which necessitates management of the following factors. Destination The development of destination or tourist sites has a far-reaching impact on attracting the tourists. It is essential that destination or the tourist sites are easily accessible. This necessitates safe, fast and reliable transportation facilities hither and thither the tourist sites. To be more specific for promoting world tourism or attracting the foreign tourists, it is essential that the flying time is made proportionate. The site should be clean, the beaches should be sandy, sun-shine should be certain, the entertainment facilities at the site should be of quality the site should be safe to walk about, the local people should be friendly, the tour operator, the travel guides and others should have competence of speaking English and other regional languages. These facilities at the destination would add attractions. Management of Airport While managing the tourism product, the airports are required to be managed carefully. The airport should be local and convenient. The arrangement for car parking should be safe and adequate. It should not be congested but it should be spacious. In addition, the shopping facilities should be duty free. The airport should be clean and the vehicles should be available so that tourist doesnt face any trouble. Besides, the security arrangement should be tight to protect the passengers and their valuables. The aesthetic management occupies a place of significance in the very context. Airlines The flights should maintain the time schedule otherwise a dislocation may invite multifaceted problems, not only to the tourists but even to the airport authorities. The services should be reliable, good and polite. The sophisticated modern aircrafts of new generation should be included in the fleet to attract the tourists. The safety record should also be up to mark to remove the fear psychosis or psycho-fobia. Road and Rail Transportation For the tourists preferring to travel by buses of railways, it is significant that the stations are well managed. The booking and reservation counters should be managed scientifically. The enquiry should be controlled by efficient and well behaved staff. The safety arrangement should be adequate to counter the law and order signposts should be positioned at right places to help the travelling passengers. Hotels For managing the hotel services, it is essential that we are also careful to the hotel accommodation facilities. It is pertinent that hotels are easily accessible to the tourist sites or beaches or shops. The hotel personnel trustworthy and competent enough to speak English and other regional languages. They are supposed to be friendly. The management of facilities at hotels need due care. Though the standard of services, amenities and facilities depend upon the grade of hotels still it is essential that hotels offer the promised services to the users. The gap between the services-promised and service-offered should be bridge over. The hotels should be well maintained, the decor should be attractive; possibly a fair mix of eastern and western culture, the atmosphere should be calm and quiet; specially at the night time, public rooms should be adequate in number, the swimming pool should be neat and clean where inflow and outflow of water should be scientific to protect the danger of water contamination or pollution. There should be bar with good range of drinks. The bedrooms should be spacious in which balcony facilities should be made available. The childcare services should also be made available. Particularly at the beach resorts, the sea view should be possible with all rooms, in-room telephonic services should be available, in, and room-TV should be provided. There should be adequate cupboard space. The hangers should be attractive and artistic, toilets should be neat and clean and well equipped with east and west provisions. The lighting and ventilation arrangements should be adequate. The intensity of light at different points should be given due weightage. While managing hotels, the restaurants and cafeterias also need due care. The restaurants and cafeterias should be well managed. The food and drinks should have taste-orientation. The varieties of meals and drinks should be available. The seating arrangements should be comfortable, the meal should be flexible and the hotel personnel should be polite and friendly. Resort Representatives Regarding representatives of resort, they should be-knowledgeable friendly, accessible and competent. Miscellaneous In addition, the fellow travelers should be like-minded. The main thing is to make the tour pleasant and memorable. If the tourists have companionable fellow travelers, the journey would of course remain memorable. The aforesaid facts make it clear that being an amalgam of a number of industries and services, the tourism industry is known as a multi-segment industry in which the designing of a package which proves its instrumentality as a motivational force is found a bit difficult and challenging. It requires professional excellence so that we are in a position to assess the changing levels of expectations of the guests/tourists and all the required amenities and facilities are made available to help tourists to go to the destination, to enjoy and to come back safely. The tour operators and transport operators bear the responsibility of formulating a package tour and therefore they should have world class professional excellence to know and understand their changing needs and requirements. The services are related to a number of industries managed by others and therefore, the tour operators and transport operators managing the affairs should make it sure that whatever the promises they have made on behalf of hotels, airways, railways, roadways are not to be distorted. This is likely to project the image of tour operators and therefore a gap between the services-promised and services-offered would make the task difficult. It is against this background that designing of a package tour occupies a place of outstanding significance and all the allied industries making the package are required to be careful that they are not inviting degeneration. DEMAND DETERMINATION OF THE INDUSTRY You should know this fact that India is such a country which is rich in beautiful and amazing places. Some places are god created whereas some are manmade. But in spite of having unbeatable tourism potential, lesser number of tourists visit different destinations of India for which it is known. Though Government authorities are continuously paying attention towards the growth of the tourism industry but still it is lacking the attention of a good number of travelers. It is a fact that tourism industry is contributing a large amount to the total GDP of the country so governments want to attract a good number of tourists to India. But Indian tourism is lacking a good number of tourists. This may be due to various reasons. Some of the important reasons are: PRICE:- While time and price are self-explanatory, pricing is an art in itself and requires careful study as part of corporate policy. Price is the most powerful single variable in the marketing mix. But it does not operate in isolation. Value for money, albeit at different levels, is imperative. The product must be in demand or fashionable. It may be in short supply. Competition can be weak or strong, affecting achievable rates. The wide variety of airline and hotel rates for basically the same product at different times and conditions of sale reflect these characteristics. The market may be very price sensitive, as in the case of traffic from Northern European urban areas to Mediterranean beaches where there is a strong competition and a wide choice. There are also resorts and their establishments offering exclusive attractions, justifying a premium price. Price discounting and discrimination, and segmentation, in the market has always been a feature in travel services. The historic rule is to charge what the market will bear. The product is highly perishable and cannot be stored. It is necessary normally to appeal to a number of different segments. The railways invented first-, second- and third-class travel on scheduled services. When capacity exceeded demand, excursions and package tours were invented, the purpose being to sell to capacity and maximize the yield or return. Prices can be lowered segment by segment. But the marketing task is to ensure that cheap traffic does not drive out or invade the higher price and regular clientele. Airlines, for example, offer Saturday night stopover fares at half or less than full fare, on the assumption that full fare paying travelers, notably business travelers, will not stay over the weekend. In times of crisis or recession, special rates apply. In fact, recession has always been the mother of invention in tourism, giving rise to new initiatives that created new movement. Packages, cruises, specialist tours are all examples. Indeed many hotels have created events to attract business. Tactical plans must be highly flexible, short term and changing to meet the varying tides in demand, especially seasonal change. Economic and political perturbations usually unexpected, can alter trade suddenly and sometimes with great force. Currency devaluation, the Gulf War and the severe recession of 1991 in world markets are examples. The strategic plan with its long-term marketing implications needs consideration with the development plan. As marketing has a key role in product formulation the plan must select market segments. For example, it may give priority to quality and higher priced services, which will affect the investment in equipment to provide luxury items. It will be important to select segments that fit together. At a later stage in preparing the marketing plan, a detailed product/market match exercise will be necessary. The early resort promoters understood the selective approach very well. There were from their inception select resorts, usually quiet, small and patronized by the upper classes and higher spenders, and large, gregarious resorts which were popular centers for lower class visitors. THE SUPPLY DETERMINANTS:- There are supply determinants, ranging from absolutes such as under- or overcapacity to infrastructure weakness, e.g. transport bottlenecks and health and security dangers or political instability. Such factors can seriously limit or even destroy for a time a tourist destinations reception capacity. The marketing plan will take such factors into account. SEGMENTATION AND MOTIVATION:- Two key aspects of the third demand determinant consumer preference need careful study. Indeed the success of the whole marketing operation depends on this. They are segmentation and motivation. Tourisms mass expansion takes many different forms. It is a heterogeneous not a homogeneous movement, made up of many different types of traveler, seeking a wide range of tourism products. Thus the mass movement divides up into a number of segments, each differing from the others and needing a separate approach in sales, servicing and product provision. There are many possible divisions and subdivisions which can be made usefully in planning, but essentially the segmentation task is to identify specific groups in the travelling population interested in the same type of facility and service. The group identified must be large enough to warrant separate marketing or production attention, to make a specialist approach profitable. It must also be possible and practical to reach this section of the population in an effective way. This means that the group should not be too dispersed, and that there should be efficient media and distribution channels enabling the producer to reach the customer at a reasonable marketing cost. There are a number of criteria and categories in segmenting the total market. POOR ARRANGEMENTS OF TRANSPORTATION FOR THE TOURISTS:-   Even after making lots of effort in improving qualities of the comforts for the tourists, it is said that the transportation system still requires to be improved. Tourists from outside India want to enjoy their tour with comforts in all respect and they are ready to pay for all these facilities. So it is essential to offer the best transport facilities for the tourists in order to attract more and more tourists. NON-STANDARDIZATION OF FARES AND RATES:-   There are not any standard fares and rates for the transportation. Due to this tourists face lots of problem. Most of the travel agencies want to earn more and more especially from the tourists outside India. This ultimately gives a bad impression of India on outsider. IMPROPER MAINTENANCE OF HERITAGES:-   With the advancement of tourism industry in India, numbers of  heritages  and resorts are built at different destinations in order to avoid inconvenience to the tourists. But most of the heritages are not maintained properly and these things are disliked by the tourists especially from outside India. LACK OF SECURITY AND CHANCES OF HARASSMENT:-   If we talk about the security of the tourists, it is little bit weak. We cant say with full confidence that the tourists who tour to India are secured completely. LACK OF TRAINED AND PASSIONATE PROFESSIONALS:-   Due to lack of trained and passionate professionals, tourists dont enjoy and get satisfied fully. LACK OF PROMOTIONAL STRATEGIES:-   Indian tourism must adopt a good number of promotional strategies which will help in attracting a large number of tourists. ABSENCE OF HYGIENIC AMENITIES IN THE RESORTS AND HOTELS:-   Though there are numbers of  hotels and resorts  but most of them lack in hygiene especially in the basic amenities which they offered to the tourists. PLAYERS IN THE INDUSTRY TOURISM COMPANIES MARKET SHARES Prime Travels Thomas Cook India SOTC tours Cox Kings Club Mahindra Holidays Kuoni Travel Group, India Galileo International Goodwind Travels Pvt. Ltd Airtravel Enterprise India Compass Tours India KEY ISSUES AND CURRENT TRENDS Tourism as one of the important foreign exchange earning industries has manifested great potential of growth under liberalized Indian economy. To attract the foreign tourists in India, liberal policies and reduction in taxes along with a comprehensive package for attracting tourist and foreign investment are the need of  the hour. There is also a need to increase the governments role in promoting India as a brand. Just like exports and other sectors, tourism will grow only if the India brand is established in the global market. Hence, we must have an open mind on alliances with other countries, which might help in adopting better promotion strategies, marketing, services and packaging. Only overall growth can help in improving revenue generation, which needs to grow in line with the additional capacity being setup by the hospitality industry. Present Position of Tourism Industry in India:- It may be mentioned here that the Government of India had no Tourism Policy for more than forty years since the initiation of planning in the country in1951. Consequently, no efforts were made to lay down any sort of infrastructure for the promotion and development of tourism industry in the country. As a matter of  fact, the country, after independence, had to pay serious attention towards increasing food production and laying down infrastructure for industrial development. On both the fronts, the country made tremendous progress and became leader of the developing nations. In order to achieve targets of faster economic growth, a number of Public Sector Enterprises were set up including India Tourism Development Corporation. However, no worthwhile progress was made in developing tourism in accordance with tourism potential of the country. It was only in 1992 that a tourism policy was laid down by the Government of India. As far as total revenue to the Government of India is concerned, tourism is the third largest source of foreign exchange earnings to the country after garments, gems and jewelry. India has tremendous potential to earn more foreign exchange because it has a huge and diverse potential for tourism ranging from pilgrimage tourism, beach tourism, eco-tourism, spiritual and health tourism to leisure and adventure tourism. The amazing diversity offers tourists everything they want to enjoy from a holiday but still we could not capitalize on the huge variety of  amusements offered by our country. In order to attract the influx of tourists in the years to come, the Government of India has allocated US $590 million for the tourism sector for the period of 2002-07. While the global tourism market has shown negative growth, tourist arrivals in India have improved a little in the recent past. This is a positive indication but much more can be done to promote inbound tourism in India. In brief i n India, the tourists feel insecure and irritated on account of  unwanted paper work, time consuming compliance of various rules and regulations, customs and immigration formalities, currency convertibility, beggars, tipping, bargaining, environmental pollution, transport problem, high rates and taxes etc. Beggars are such a nuisance that they are visible almost at all tourist spots, hotels, shopping centers, markets, monuments, places of worship, railway stations and bus stands. They constantly follow the visitors and there have been occasions that the tourists are so much irritated that they cut short their visits, shopping and spending. The tourists, thus, ignore India to avoid hassles and prefer other destinations where the specter of poverty and its manifestation like begging do not spoil their holiday spirit. Thus, Indias third largest foreign exchange earning industry is beset with a large number of problems. These problems have been examined in greater details in the pages that follow. RECENT CHALLENGES OF TOURISM INDUSTRY IN INDIA:- During the last few years tourists have witnessed good amount of violence and killing almost in every country including India. Kashmir, historically known as Heaven on the Earth, appears to be deserted on account of terrorism and violence. A large number of tourists, who used to visit and stay for a longer period in the Kashmir valley, do not tour the State of Jammu Kashmir for fear of violence and aggression. The business travelers also schedule their business trips only when it is absolutely essential. In fact, terrorism and violence have become the first and the foremost problem for tourists everywhere and India is no exception. The problem has assumed such alarming proportions that the world community must find its last in solution. The injustices done to the people in various parts of the world have result in great damage to tourism industry all over the world Tourists, especially of the developed countries; have been avoiding such destinations where there is any chance of viol ent activities against them. The problem has become so acute that the Governments in UK and the USA, in the recent past, had to issue travel advisories to their tourists. Though these travel advisories were, later on, withdrawn but the damage had already been done. India is not a preferred destination now for most of  the Western tourists who spend, from our standards, a lot of money on tourism. Tourists are also irritated on account of unwanted paper work, time was the compliance of rules and regulations in India. In addition to customs and immigration formalities, language barriers are also the major problems faced by the foreign visitors. The difficulties of entry and exit too spoil half of the holiday charm. Again, our poor infrastructure, shortage of packaged tours, lack of  connectivity between places, lack of transportation, our failure to create mass awareness throughout the world, polluted environment, discriminating economic and social behavior, inadequate and inexperi enced staff, uneasy current convertibility and lack of multi-linguistic guides come in their way of pleasant tour and make the foreign tourists reluctant to come to India. PEST Analysis The Indian tourism industry has seen rapid growth in the last few years. Before any kind of analysis is undertaken, it is important to find out what are the main environmental influences that have lead to this growth and how the extent to which the changes are occurring. This is important because the change in these factors can have significant effect on the way the industry performs. These environmental influences can be analyzed by using the PEST Analysis. The PEST Analysis within its parameters indicates the importance of the political, environmental, social and the technological changes on the industry. a) Political / Legal Political The political factors are the main force of the industry. The Indian tourism industry is built on the ba